From 74444.1076@COMPUSERVE.COMWed Apr  3 16:32:52 1996
Date: Mon, 1 Apr 1996 13:29:48 EST
From: Jamal Mazrui <74444.1076@COMPUSERVE.COM>
Reply to: "EASI: Equal Access to Software and Information"
     <EASI@SJUVM.STJOHNS.EDU>
To: Multiple recipients of list EASI <EASI@SJUVM.STJOHNS.EDU>
Subject: Intro to U.S. Government

Participating effectively in government processes depends partly
on our understanding of the structure and operation of the U.S.
system.  Though we have probably learned the basics at one time
or another, an accessible civics refresher I found may be useful,
especially in a year where citizen activism--including that by
people with disabilities--is likely to make a considerable
difference in the future directions of government programs.

Jamal Mazrui
National Council on Disability
Email: 74444.1076@compuserve.com

----------

                    AN INTRODUCTION TO THE US GOVERNMENT


    Table of Contents

     * How a Bill Becomes a Law
     * The Congress
     * Congressional Leadership
     * The President
     * The Constitution
     * Elections
     * Campaign Finance
     * The Budget
     * Bibliography



   (Compiled by Elise Senter, 1995)
----------
                            HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW:


     _________________________________________________________________



   Legislation is Introduced... Committee Action... Floor
   Action... Conference Committee... The President... The Bill
   Becomes a Law... Glossary of Terms
     _________________________________________________________________

    A. Legislation is Introduced



   Any member can introduce a piece of legislation

   House - Legislation is handed to the clerk of the House or placed in
   the hopper.

   Senate - Members must gain recognition of the presiding officer to
   announce the introduction of a bill during the morning hour. If
   any senator objects, the introduction of the\\\ bill is postponed
   until the next day.
     * The bill is assigned a number. (i.e. HR1 or S1)
     * The bill is labeled with the sponsor's name.
     * The bill is sent to the Government Printing Office and copies are
       made.
     * Senate bills can be jointly sponsored.
     * Members can cosponsor the piece of Legislation.


     _________________________________________________________________

    B. Committee Action



   The bill is referred to the appropriate committee by the Speaker of
   the House or the presiding officer in the Senate. Most often the
   actual referral decision is made by the House or Senate
   parliamentarian. Bills may be referred to more than one committee and
   it may be split so that parts are sent to different committees. The
   Speaker of the House may set time limits on committees. Bills are
   placed on the calendar of the committee to which they have been
   assigned. Failure to act on a bill is equivalent to killing it. Bills
   in the House can only be released from committee without a proper
   committee vote by a discharge petition signed by a majority of the
   House membership (218).

   Committee Steps:
    1. Comments about the bill's merit are requested by government
       agencies.
    2. Bill can be assigned to subcommittee by Chairman.
    3. Hearings may be held.
    4. Subcommittees report their findings to the full committee.
    5. Finally there is a vote by the full committee - the bill is
       "ordered to be reported."
    6. A committee will hold a "mark-up" session during which it will
       make revisions and addition. If substantial amendments are made,
       the committee can order the introduction of a "clean bill" which
       will include the proposed amendments. This new bill will have a
       new number and will be sent to the floor while the old bill is
       discarded. The chamber must approve, change or reject all
       committee amendments before conducting a final passage vote.
    7. After the bill is reported, the committee staff prepares a written
       report explaining why they favor the bill and why they wish to see
       their amendments, if any, adopted. Committee members who oppose a
       bill sometimes write a dissenting opinion in the report. The
       report is sent back to the whole chamber and is placed on the
       calendar.
    8. In the House, most bills go to the Rules committee before reaching
       the floor. The committee adopts rules that will govern the
       procedures under which the bill will be considered by the House. A
       "closed rule" sets strict time limits on debate and forbids the
       introduction of amendments. These rules can have a major impact on
       whether the bill passes. The rules committee can be bypassed in
       three ways 1.) members can move rules to be suspended (requires
       2/3 vote) 2.) a discharge petition can be filed 3.) the House can
       use a Calendar Wednesday procedure.


     _________________________________________________________________

    C. Floor Action



   1. Legislation is placed on the Calendar

   House: Bills are placed on one of four House Calendars. They are
   usually placed on the calendars in the order of which they are
   reported yet they don't usually come to floor in this order - some
   bills never reach the floor at all. The Speaker of the House and the
   Majority Leader decide what will reach the floor and when.
   (Legislation can also be brought to the floor by a discharge
   petition.)

   Senate: Legislation is placed on the Legislative Calendar. There is
   also an Executive calendar to deal with treaties and nominations.
   Scheduling of legislation is the job of the Majority Leader. Bills can
   be brought tothe floor whenever a majority of the Senate chooses.

   2. Debate

   House: Debate is limited by the rules formulated in the Rules
   Committee. The Committee of the Whole debates and amends the bill
   but cannot technically pass it. Debate is guided by the Sponsoring
   Committee and time is divided equally between proponents and
   opponents. The Committee decides how much time to allot to each
   person. Amendments must be germane to the subject of a bill - no
   riders are allowed. The bill is reported back to the House (to
   itself) and is voted on. A quorum call is a vote to make sure that
   there are enough members present (218) to have a final vote. If there
   is not a quorum, the House will adjourn or will send the Sergeant at
   Arms out to round up missing members.

   Senate: debate is unlimited unless cloture is invoked. Members can
   speak as long as they want and amendments need not be germane - riders
   are often offered. Entire bills can therefore be offered as amendments
   to other bills.

   Unless cloture is invoked, Senators can use a filibuster to defeat
   a measure by "talking it to death."

   3. Vote - the bill is voted on. If passed, it is then sent to the
   other chamber unless that chamber already has a similar measure under
   consideration. If either chamber does not pass the bill then it dies.
   If the House and Senate pass the same bill then it is sent to the
   President. If the House and Senate pass different bills they are sent
   to Conference Committee. Most major legislation goes to a Conference
   Committee.
     _________________________________________________________________

    D. Conference Committee
    1. Members from each house form a conference committee and meet to
       work out the differences. The committee is usually made up of
       senior members who are appointed by the presiding officers of the
       committee that originally dealt with the bill. The representatives
       from each house work to maintain their version of the bill.
    2. If the Conference Committee reaches a compromise, it prepares a
       written conference report which is submitted to each chamber.
    3. The conference report must be approved by both the House and the
       Senate.


     _________________________________________________________________

    E. The President



   The bill is sent to the President for review.
    1. A bill becomes law if signed by the President or if not signed
       within 10 days and Congress is in session.
    2. If Congress adjourns before the 10 days and the President has not
       signed the bill then it does not become law ("Pocket Veto.")
    3. If the President vetoes the bill it is sent back to Congress with
       a note listing his/her reasons. The chamber which originated the
       legislation can attempt to override the veto by a vote of
       two-thirds of those present. If the veto of the bill is overridden
       in both chambers then it becomes law.


     _________________________________________________________________

    F. The Bill Becomes A Law



   Once a bill is signed by the President or the veto is overridden by
   both houses it becomes a law and is assigned an official number.
     _________________________________________________________________



   GLOSSARY OF TERMS

   House Legislative Calendars
     * The Union Calendar - deals with bills which would raise revenues
       and spending bills (appropriations).
   The House Calendar - deals with public bills which do not raise
       revenue or appropriate any money or property.
     * The Consent Calendar - deals with bills which are not
       controversial and are passed without debate. This calendar is
       called on the first and third Monday of each month.
     * The Private Calendar - deals with claims against the U.S.



   Types of Legislation
     * Bills - Denoted with HR in the House and S in the Senate and then
       followed by an assigned number. This is the most common form of
       legislation.
     * Private Bill - A bill that deals only with specific private,
       personal, or local matters other than with general legislative
       affairs. The main kinds include immigration and naturalization
       bills (referring to particular individuals) and personal-claim
       bills.
     * Public Bill - A legislative bill that deals with matters of
       general concern. A bill involving defense expenditures is a public
       bill.
     * Resolution - Hres or Sres. This type of legislation is adopted
       only by the house that introduces it, and deals with issues
       concerning the operation of that house only.
     * Concurrent Resolutions - H Con Res or S Con Res. This type of
       legislation does not become law. It deals with issues that relate
       to internal matters in both the House and the Senate.
     * Joint Resolutions - HJ Res or SJ Res. These treated much the same
       as bills with the exception of joint resolutions which propose
       amendments to the Constitution. Two-thirds of both the House and
       the Senate must approve proposed amendments and then the Joint
       Resolution is sent to the states for ratification instead of the
       President.



   Other Terms

   Calendar Wednesday - a procedure of the House of Representatives
       whereby Wednesdays may be used to call the roll of the standing
       committees for the purpose of bringing up any of their bills for
       consideration from the House or Union Calendar.
   Cloture - is a motion in the Senate to limit debate. It takes 60
       votes to invoke cloture. Invoking cloture will end a filibuster.
   Committee of The Whole - The members of the House of Representatives
       organized into a committee for the consideration of bills and
       other matters. Most House business is transacted in the Committee
       of the Whole so that the formal requirements of its regular
       sessions, such as having a quorum of one-half the membership, can
       be avoided.
   Co-Sponsor - additional members (after the original sponsor) who join
       on to support a bill.
   Discharge Petition - In the House, if a committee does not report a
       bill within 30 days after the measure is referred to it, any
       member my file a discharge motion. Once offered, the motion is
       treated as a petition needing the signatures of a majority of
       members (218 if there are no vacancies). After the required
       signatures have been obtained, there is a delay of seven days.
       Thereafter on the second and fourth Mondays of each month, except
       during the last six days of a session, any member who has signed
       the petition must be recognized, if he/she so desires, to move
       that the committee be discharged. Debate on the motion to
       discharge is limited to 20 minutes, and, if the motion is carried,
       consideration of the bill becomes a matter of high privilege.
   Filibuster - an attempt to defeat a bill in the Senate by talking
       indefinitely, thus preventing the Senate from doing any other
       work. From the Spanish filibustero, which means a "freebooter," a
       military adventurer.
   Germane - Pertaining to the subject matter of the measure at hand.
   Hopper - Box on House Clerk's desk where members deposit bills and
       resolution to introduced them.
   Morning Hour - The time set aside at the beginning of each
       legislative day for the consideration of regular, routine
       business. The "hour" is of indefinite duration in the House, where
       it is rarely used.
   Rider - A provision, unlikely to pass on its own merits, added to an
       important bill so that it will "ride" through the legislative
       process.
   Sponsor - The original member who introduces a bill.
     * Veto - The power of a president, governor, or mayor to kill a
       piece of legislation by not signing it into law. From Latin term
       veto - "I forbid"
----------
                           THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS:


     _________________________________________________________________

  THE POWERS OF CONGRESS:



   The powers of Congress are found in Article 1, section 8, of the
   Constitution. The following is a brief summary:
          + To levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises.
          + To borrow money.
          + To regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the states,
            and with Indian tribes.
          + To establish rules for naturalization (that is, becoming a
            citizen) and bankruptcy.
          + To coin money, set its value, and punish counterfeiting.
          + To fix the standard of weights and measures.
          + To establish a post office and post roads.
          + To issue patents and copyrights to inventors and authors.
          + To create courts inferior (that is, below) to the Supreme
            Court.
          + To define and punish piracies, felonies on the high seas, and
            crimes against the law of nations.
          + To declare war.
          + To raise and support an army and navy and make rules for
            their governance.
          + To provide for a militia (reserving to the states the right
            to appoint militia officers and to train the militia under
            congressional rule).
          + To exercise exclusive legislative powers over the seat of
            government (that is, the District of Columbia) and over
            places purchased to be federal facilities (forts, arsenals,
            dockyards, and "other needful buildings.")
          + To "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for the
            carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other
            powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the
            United States."


     _________________________________________________________________



   Qualifications for Entering Congress:

   House:
          + Must be 25 years of age (when seated, not when elected)
          + Must have been a citizen of the United States for 7 years.
          + Must be an inhabitant of the state from which elected. (NOTE:
            custom, but not the Constitution, requires that a
            representative live in the district that he or she
            represents.)



   Senate:
          + Must be 35 years of age (when seated, not when elected)
          + Must have been a citizen of the United States for 9 years.
          + Must be an inhabitant of the state from which elected.


     _________________________________________________________________

   The following source was especially useful in this section:

                Wilson, James. American Government. D.C. Health and
                Company. Lexington, MA 1989.
----------
                            CONGRESSIONAL LEADERSHIP:


    I. Senate
          + PRESIDENT PRO TEMPORE: selected by majority party. Usually
            most senior member of the senate majority party.
          + Majority Leader: Leads the party.
          + Majority Whip: Assists the leader, rounds up votes, heads
            group of deputy whips.
          + Chairman of the Conference: Presides over meetings of all
            members of the Senate majority party.
          + Policy Committee: Schedules legislation.
          + Legislative Review Committee: Reviews legislative proposals
            and makes recommendations to senators of the majority party.
          + Steering Committee: Assigns Senators of the majority party to
            committees.
          + Republican/Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee: Provides
            funds, assistance to republican/Democratic candidates for the
            Senate.



   ___________________
          + Minority Leader: Leads the party.
          + Assistant Minority Leader: Assists the leader, rounds up
            votes.
          + Chairman of the Conference: Presides over meetings of all
            senators of the minority party.
          + Policy Committee: Makes recommendations on party policy.
          + Committee on Committees: Assigns Senators of the minority
            party to committees.

    II. House



   SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE Selected by the majority party.
          + Majority Leader: Leads the party.
          + Majority Whip: Assists the leader, rounds up votes, heads
            large group of deputy and assistant whips.
          + Chairman of the Caucus: Presides over meetings of all members
            of the majority party.
          + Steering and Policy Committee: Schedules legislation, assigns
            members of the majority party to committees.
          + Republican/Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee:
            Provides funds, advice to Republican/Democratic candidates
            for the House.



   __________________________
          + Minority Leader: Leads the party.
          + Minority Whip: Assists the leader, rounds up votes, heads
            large forum of deputy and assistant whips.
          + Chairman of the Conference: Presides over meetings of all
            members of the minority party.
          + Committee on Committees: Assigns members of the minority
            party to committees.
          + Policy Committee: Advises on party policy.
          + Research Committee: On request, provides information about
            issues.


     _________________________________________________________________



Current Congressional Leadership:



  HOUSE:



        Speaker
                Newt Gingrich

        Majority Leader
                Dick Armey

        Majority Whip
                Tom DeLay

        Policy Committee
                Christopher Cox (Chair)
                Newt Gingrich
                John Linder
                Robert Walker
                Richard Amrey
                Tob DeLay
                John Boehner
                Susan Molinari
                Barbara Vucanovich
                Bill Paxon
                Michael Crapo
                David McIntosh
                Sue Myrick
                Gerald Solomon
                Bill Archer
                Bob Livington
                John Kaisich
                Richard Pombo
                James Quillen
                Joe Knollenberg
                Harris Fawell
                Curt Weldon
                Peter Blute
                Floyd Spence
                Jim McCrery
                Jim Kolbe
                Doug Bereuter
                James Greenwood
                Edward Royce
                Dave Weldon
                John Shadegg
                Wayne Allard
                Helen Chenoweth
                William Goodling
                Mel Hancock
                Bob Inglis
                Steve Largent
                Ron Lewis
                Jim Saxton
                Clifford Stears
                Gerald Weller

        Chairman of the Conference
                John Boehner

        Chair Congressional Campaign Committee
                Bill Paxon

   -----------------------------------------------------------



        Minority Leader
                Dick Gephardt



        Minority Whip
                David Bonior

        Chair of Conference
                Vic Fazio

        Policy Committee
                Richard Gephardt (chair)
                George Miller
                John Spratt
                Richard Durbin
                Kweisi Mfume
                Eva Clayton
                David Obey


     _________________________________________________________________



  SENTATE



        President Pro Tempore
                Strom Thurmond

        Majority Leader
                Bob Dole

        Majority Whip
                Trent Lott

        Chair of the Conference
                Thad Cochran

        Policy Committee
                Don Nichols (chair)
                Christopher Bond
                John Chafee
                Thad Cochran
                Alfonse D'Amato
                Robert Dole
                Pete Domenici
                Orrin Hatch
                Mark Hatfield
                Jesse Helms
                Nancy Kassebaum
                Trent Lott
                Richard Lugar
                Connie Mack
                Frank Murkowski
                Bob Packwood
                Larry Pressler
                William Roth
                Alan Simpson
                Arlen Specter
                Ted Stevens
                Strom Thurmond

        Senatorial Campaign Committee Chair
                Alfonse D'Amato


     _________________________________________________________________



        Minority Leader
                Tom Daschle

        Minority Whip
                Wendell Ford

        Chair of the Conference
                Barbara Mikulski

        Policy Committee
                Tom Daschel (chair)
                Harry Reid
                Paul Sarbanes
                Charles Robb
                Patty Murray
                John Glen
                Ernest Hollings
                Claiborne Pell
                Dale Bumpers
                Daniel Patrick Moynihan
                John Rockefeller
                Daniel Akaka
                Byron Dorgon
                Carol Moseley-Braun
                Russell Feingold
                Joseph Lieberman
                Paul Wellstone
                Bennett Johnston
                Dianne Feinstein

        Senatorial Campaign Committee
                Bob Kerry
----------
                       THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES:


     _________________________________________________________________

  QUALIFICATIONS:
          + Must be a natural-born citizen of the United States (can be
            born abroad of parents who are American citizens)
          + Must be 35 years of age.
          + Must be a resident of the United States for at least 14 years
            (but not necessarily the 14 years preceding the election.)


     _________________________________________________________________

  BENEFITS:
          + A nice house
          + A salary of $200,000 per year (taxable)
          + Expense account of $50,000 per year (taxable)
          + Travel expenses of $100,000 per year (tax-free)
          + Pension, on retirement, of $63,000 per year (taxable)
          + Staff support on leaving the presidency
          + A place in the country - Camp David
          + A personal airplane - Air Force Once
          + A fine chef


     _________________________________________________________________

  THE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT:



   According to Article II of the Constitution the President has the
   following powers:

   Powers of the President
          + Serve as commander in chief of the armed forces.
          + Commission officer of the armed forces
          + Grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses (except
            impeachment)
          + Convene Congress in special sessions
          + Receive ambassadors
          + Take care that the laws be faithfully executed
          + Wield the "executive power"
          + Appoint officials to lesser offices



   Powers of the President That Are Shared with the Senate
          + Make treaties
          + Appoint ambassadors, judges, and high officials



   Powers of the President That are Shared with Congress as a Whole
          + Approve legislation


     _________________________________________________________________



   The following source was especially useful in this section:

                Wilson, James. American Government. D.C. Health and
                Company. Lexington, MA 1989.
----------
                             THE CONSTITUTION:


     _________________________________________________________________

  I. CHECKS AND BALANCES:



   The Constitution creates a system of separate institutions that share
   powers. Because the three branches of government share powers, each
   can (partially) check the powers of the others. This is the system of
   checks and balances. The major checks possessed by each branch are
   listed below.

  CONGRESS



   1. Can check the president in these ways:
          + By refusing to pass a bill the president wants
          + By passing a law over the president's veto
          + By using the impeachment powers to remove the president
            from office
          + By refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate
            only)
          + By refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed
            (Senate only)



   2. Can check the federal courts in these ways:
          + By changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts
          + By using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office
          + By refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge
            (Senate only)



   President
         1. Can check Congress by vetoing a bill it has passed
         2. Can check the federal courts by nominating judges



   Courts
         1. Can check Congress by declaring a law unconstitutional.
         2. Can check the president by declaring actions by him/her or
            his/her subordinates to be unconstitutional or not authorized
            by law.



   In addition to these checks provided for in the Constitution, each
   branch has informal ways of checking the others. For example, the
   president can withhold information from Congress (on the grounds of
   executive privilege), and Congress can try to get information from
   the president by mounting an investigation.
     _________________________________________________________________

  II. LIBERTIES GUARANTEED IN THE CONSTITUTION (BEFORE THE BILL OF RIGHTS WAS
  ADDED)
          + Writ of habeus corpus may not be suspended (except during
            an invasion or rebellion).
          + No bill of attainder may be passed by Congress or the
            states.
          + No ex post facto law may be passed by Congress or the
            states.
          + Right of trial by jury in criminal cases is guaranteed.
          + The citizens of each state are entitled to the privileges and
            immunities of the citizens of every other state.
          + No religious test or qualification for holding federal office
            is imposed.
          + No law impairing the obligation of contracts may be passed by
            the states.


     _________________________________________________________________

  III. THE BILL OF RIGHTS:



   The first ten amendments passed by Congress September 25, 1789.
   Ratified December 15, 1791.

   Amendment I

   Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or
   prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of
   speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to
   assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

   Amendment II

   A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free
   State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be
   infringed.

   Amendment III

   No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without
   the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be
   prescribed by law.

   Amendment IV

   The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
   and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
   violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause,
   supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the
   place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

   Amendment V

   No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous
   crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except
   in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when
   in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any
   person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of
   life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a
   witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or
   property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be
   taken for public use without just compensation.

   Amendment VI

   In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a
   speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and
   district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district
   shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of
   the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the
   witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining
   witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his
   defense.

   Amendment VII

   In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
   twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
   fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the
   United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

   Amendment VIII

   Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor
   cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

   Amendment IX

   The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be
   construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

   Amendment X

   The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor
   prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States
   respectively, or to the people.
     _________________________________________________________________

  IV. WAYS OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION:



   Under Article V there are two ways to propose amendments to the
   Constitution and two ways to ratify them.

   To propose an amendment
         1. Two-thirds of both houses of Congress vote to propose an
            amendment, or
         2. Two-thirds of the state legislatures ask Congress to call a
            national convention to propose amendments.



   To ratify an amendment
         1. Three-fourths of the state legislatures approve it, or
         2. Ratifying conventions in three-fourths of the states approve
            it.



   Some Key Facts:
          + Only the first method of proposing an amendment has been
            used.
          + The second method of ratification has been used only once, to
            ratify the Twenty-first Amendment (repealing Prohibition).
          + Congress may limit the time within which a proposed amendment
            must be ratified. The usual limitation has been seven years.
          + Thousands of proposals have been made, but only thirty-three
            have obtained the necessary two-thirds vote in Congress.
          + Twenty six amendments have been ratified.


     _________________________________________________________________

  CONSTITUTIONAL VOCABULARY



   Bill of Attainer - A legislative act that declares the guilt of an
   individual and doles out punishment without a judicial trial. The
   state legislatures and Congress are forbidden by Article 1, sections 9
   and 10 of the Constitution to pass such acts. This is an important
   ingredient of the separation of powers.

   Executive Privilege - The claimed right of executive officials to
   refuse to appear before, or to withhold information from, the
   legislature or courts on the grounds that the information is
   confidential and would damage the national interest. For example,
   President Nixon refused, unsuccessfully, to surrender his subpoenaed
   White House tapes by claiming executive privilege.

   Executive Order - This critical instrument of active presidential
   power is nowhere defined in the Constitution but generally is
   construed as a presidential directive that becomes law without prior
   congressional approval. The power for the executive order is implied
   in Article II of the Constitution when it allots "executive power" to
   the president:

     "The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United
     States of America." - Article II, section 1

     "[The President] shall take care that the laws be faithfully
     executed..." - Article II, section 3



   Double Jeopardy -The guarantee in the Fifth Amendment to the
   Constitution that one may not be tried twice for the same crime. For
   example, an individual declared not guilty of murdering a neighbor
   cannot be tried again for that murder. The person is not, however,
   exempt from begin tried for the murder of another individual.

   Habeus Corpus - a court order directing a police officer, sheriff, or
   warden who has a person in custody to bring the prisoner before a
   judge and show sufficient cause for his or her detention. Designed to
   prevent illegal arrests and unlawful imprisonment. A Latin term
   meaning "you shall have the body".

   Impeachment - A formal accusation against a public official by the
   lower house of a legislative body. Impeachment is merely an accusation
   and not a conviction. Only one president, Andrew Johnson in 1868, was
   ever impeached. He was not, however, convicted, for the Senate failed
   by one vote to obtain the necessary two-thirds vote required for
   conviction.

   Ex Post Facto Law - a law that makes criminal an act that was legal
   when it was committed, or that increases the penalty for a crime after
   it has been committed, or that changes the rules of evidence to make
   conviction easier; a retroactive criminal law. A Latin term meaning
   "after the fact". The state legislatures and Congress are forbidden to
   pass such laws by Article I, section 9 and 10 or the Constitution.
----------
                                    ELECTION:


     _________________________________________________________________

  KINDS OF ELECTIONS:
    1. General Election - an election to fill public offices.
    2. Primary Election - an election prior to the general election in
       which voters select the candidates who will run on each party's
       ticket. Primaries are also used to choose convention delegates and
       party leaders, and may be open or closed.
          + Open Primary - an election that permits voters to choose on
            election day the party primary in which they wish to vote.
            They may vote for candidates of only one party. (A blanket or
            "free love" primary is a type of open primary. In the voting
            booth you mark a ballot that lists the candidates for
            nomination of all the parties, and thus you can help select
            the Democratic candidate for one office and the Republican
            candidate for another.)
          + Closed Primary - the selection of a party's candidates in an
            election limited to registered party members. Prevents
            members of other parties from "crossing over" to influence
            the nomination of an opposing party's candidate.
          + Runoff Primary - if no candidate gets a majority of the
            votes, a runoff is held to decide who should win.
          + Presidential Primary - a primary used to pick delegates to
            the presidential nominating conventions of the major parties.


     _________________________________________________________________

  ELECTION VOCABULARY



   Electoral College A group of persons called "electors," selected by
   the voters in each state, that officially elects the president and
   vice president. The number of electors in each states is equal to its
   number of representatives in both houses of Congress.

   Initiative An electoral procedure whereby citizens can propose
   legislation or constitutional amendments and refer the decision to a
   popular vote by obtaining the required number of signatures on a
   petition.

   Machine A hierarchically organized, centrally led state or local party
   organization that rewards members with material benefits (patronage).

   Office-Block Ballot A ballot listing all candidates for a given office
   under the name of that office; also called a "Massachusetts" ballot.

   Party-Column Ballot A ballot listing all candidates of a given party
   together under the name of that party; also called an "Indiana"
   ballot.

   Split-Ticket Voting Voting for candidates of different parties for
   various offices in the same election. For example, voting for a
   Republican for senator and a Democrat for president.

   Straight-Ticket Voting Voting for candidates who are all of the same
   party. For example, voting for Republican candidates for senator,
   representative, and president.
     _________________________________________________________________

   The following source was especially useful in this section:

          Wilson, James. American Government. D.C. Health and Company.
          Lexington, MA 1989.
----------
                                CAMPAIGN FINANCE:



   ( Information provided by The Center For Responsive Politics)
     _________________________________________________________________

  I. MAJOR RULES



   Who Can Contribute?
          + Any American citizen can contribute funds to a candidate or a
            political party except for individuals and sole owners of
            proprietorships that have contracts with the federal
            government.
          + Foreigners with no permanent US residency are prohibited from
            contributing to any political candidates at any level.
          + Cash contributions over $100 are prohibited, no matter what
            their origin.
          + No candidate can accept an anonymous contribution that is
            more than $50.
          + Corporations, labor unions, national banks and federally
            chartered corporations are also prohibited from contributing
            to federal campaigns or parties. (since 1907)
          + Political action committees operated by foreign-owned
            corporations may contribute to campaigns as long as American
            citizens are the only contributors to the PAC.



   Federal Campaign Spending Limits According to the Federal Election
   Campaign Act of 1974:
     _________________________________________________________________


                   To any          To any       To any PAC or
                candidate or   national party       other          Total
                  candidate       committee       political
                  committee                       committee

 Time Period    per election*   per calendar    per calendar    per calendar
                                    year            year            year

  Individual
 can give...       $1,000          $20,000         $5,000         $25,000

Multicandidate
   Committee
can give...**      $5,000          $15,000         $5,000         No limit

    Other
  Political
Committee can      $1,000          $20,000         $5,000         No limit
   give...


     _________________________________________________________________



   SOURCE: The Federal Election Commission

   * Primary and general elections count as two separate elections; so
   this contribution can be effectively doubled during a normal election
   year in sates with primaries.

   ** Multicandidate committees are those with more than 50 contributors,
   that have been registered for at least six months, and (with the
   exception of state party committees) have made contributions to five
   or more federal candidates.
     _________________________________________________________________

  II. WHAT IS A PAC?



   A Political Action Committee (PAC) is a committee set up by and
   representing a corporation, labor union, or special interest group
   that raises and spends campaign contributions on behalf of one or more
   candidates or causes. The first modern PAC was formed by the Congress
   of Industrial Organizations in 1943 in response to Congress decision
   to ban direct contributions from labor unions to federal candidates.
   The funds that are distributed from PACs come not from the
   organization but from voluntary contributions from individual members.
   While such an arrangement was not explicitly sanctioned by federal
   law, neither was it prohibited. Over the next 30 years the idea
   gradually caught on as other labor unions then corporations and
   business groups, formed PACs of their own. But many groups held back.
   PACs were still a loophole in federal election laws which were
   tolerated but not officially sanctioned.

   In 1974 the Federal Election Campaign Act was amended and specifically
   sanctioned the formation of "political committees" to enable the
   employees of corporations, members of labor unions, or members of
   professional groups, trade associations or any other political group
   to pool their dollars and give to the candidates of their choice. At
   the same time, it gave PACs higher contributions limits than
   individual contributors, and set up the Federal Election Commission
   (FEC) to oversee elections and to collect and monitor campaign finance
   reports filed by PACs and candidates. The FEC officially recognized
   over 600 PACs by the end of 1974 giving about $12.5 million to
   campaigns. By 1992 that number had more than tripled with over 4,700
   individual PAC recognized contributing over $189 million. The great
   majority of those dollars - both then and now - went to financing the
   campaigns of incumbent members of Congress.
----------
                                   THE BUDGET:

  TYPES OF SPENDING:

        Discretionary - 36% of all Federal Spending

        This is the money the President and Congress must decide to spend
                each year. It includes money for such programs as the FBI
                and the Coast Guard, housing and education, space
                exploration and highway construction, and defense and
                foreign aid.

   Mandatory - 64% of all Federal Spending

   This is the money that the Federal Government appends automatically -
   unless the President and Congress change the laws that govern it. It
   includes entitlements- such as Social Security, Medicare, and Food
   Stamps - through which individuals receive benefits because they meet
   some criteria of eligibility (e.g. age, income). It also includes
   interest on the national debt, which the Government pays to
   individuals and institutions that buy saving bonds and other US
   securities. Despite its name, however, mandatory spending is not fixed
   in stone. The President and Congress can change the laws that govern
   entitlements or taxes, but they must take explicit action to do so.
     _________________________________________________________________

  THE BUDGET PROCESS:
          + The President's Budget is sent to Congress in early February.
            This proposal is his/her plan for the next fiscal year,
            beginning October 1. This plan, however, only becomes
            official after Congress passes, and the President signs
            spending bills and legislation creating new taxes and
            entitlements.
          + After receiving the President's budget, Congress examines it
            in detail. Scores of committees and subcommittees hold
            hearings on proposals under their jurisdiction. The House and
            Senate Armed Services Committees, for instance, would hold
            hearings on the President's defense plan. If the President's
            plan contains proposals that affect Federal revenues, the
            House Ways and Means and Senate Finance committees would hold
            hearings. The President, the Budget Director, the Cabinet,
            and others work with Congress as it accepts some proposals,
            rejects other, and changes still others.
          + Each year Congress must pass and the President must sign, 13
            appropriation bills that include all of the discretionary
            spending. The President and Congress do not have to enact new
            laws governing entitlements or taxes. If they do not, the
            Government will pay the benefits for Social Security and
            other programs and collect the taxes required by laws in
            place.


     _________________________________________________________________

  BUDGET CALENDAR:

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
No later than the 1st Monday in           President transmits the budget,
            February                   including a sequester preview report.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Six weeks later                   Congressional committees report
                                             budget estimates to Budget
                                                    Committees.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-            April 15th                        Action to be completed on
                                          congressional budget resolution.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            May 15th                       House consideration of annual
                                          appropriations bills may begin.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            June 15th                         Action to be completed on
                                                   reconciliation.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            June 30th                      Action on appropriations to be
                                                completed by House.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             July 15                       President transmits Mid-Session
                                               Review of the budget.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
           August 20th                   OMB updates the sequester preview.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            October 1                            Fiscal year begins.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15 days after the end of a session       OMB issues final sequester report,
          of Congress                  and the President issues a sequester
                                               order, if necessary.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------


     _________________________________________________________________

  BUDGET VOCABULARY:



   Appropriation - A legislative grant of money to finance a government
   program.

   Congressional Budget Office - Provides expert technical and computer
   services to congress; analyzes the budget proposal of the office of
   management and budget; determines the economic consequences of
   legislation.

   Entitlements - A law that requires the paying of monetary benefits to
   some person or persons who meet the eligibility requirements
   established by the law; a binding obligation of the government (i.e.
   Social Security).

   General Accounting Office (GAO) - Checks to see that government
   spending is proper and reasonable; headed by the Comptroller General
   who is appointed by the President, with the senate's approval, for a
   15 year term.

   Office of Management and Budget - An advisory body that prepares the
   national budget and reviews agency requests for congressional
   appropriations. The OMB prepares the national budget, supervises and
   controls the administration of the budget, and helps the President
   propose legislation dealing with the budget. In addition, the OMB
   assists in the preparation of proposed executive orders and keeps the
   President informed of all overall activities of the government. The
   Director of the OMB is appointed by the President with Senate
   approval.

   Reconciliation - A concurrent resolution, passed by both houses of
   Congress, that reconciles the specific amounts to be spend in the
   coming fiscal year with the overall budget ceiling.
----------
                                  BIBLIOGRAPHY:


     _________________________________________________________________



   American Government 93/94. Bruce Steinbrecker, Ed. The Dushkin
   Publishing Group, Inc. Guilford, CT. 1993.

   Congressional Pay and Perquisites. Mary Cohn, Ed. Congressional
   Quarterly Inc. Washington, D.C. 1992.

   Congressional Campaign Finances. Mary Cohn, Ed. Congressional
   Quarterly Inc. Washington, D.C. 1992.

   Democracy Owner's Manual. Kerry Powers, Ed. Vote U.S.A., Inc. 1994.

   Guide to Congress. Mary Cohn, Ed. Congressional Quarterly Inc.
   Washington, D.C. 1991.

   Makinson, Larry. The Price of Admission. The Center for Responsive
   Politics. Washington, D.C. 1993.

   Wilson, James. American Government. D.C. Health and Company.
   Lexington, MA 1989.

   Zuckerman, Edward. The Almanac of Federal PAC's: 1994-1995. Amward
   Publications Inc. Arlington, VA. 1994
